The Ethnological Society of London (ESL) was a

learned society A learned society (; also learned academy, scholarly society, or academic association) is an organization that exists to promote an discipline (academia), academic discipline, profession, or a group of related disciplines such as the arts and s ...

founded in 1843 as an offshoot of the

Aborigines' Protection Society The Aborigines' Protection Society (APS) was an international human rights organisation founded in 1837,
...

(APS). The meaning of

ethnology Ethnology (from the grc-gre, ἔθνος, meaning 'nation') is an academic field that compares and analyzes the characteristics of different peoples and the relationships between them (compare cultural anthropology, cultural, social anthropolo ...

as a discipline was not then fixed: approaches and attitudes to it changed over its lifetime, with the rise of a more scientific approach to human diversity. Over three decades the ESL had a chequered existence, with periods of low activity and a major schism contributing to a patchy continuity of its meetings and publications. It provided a forum for discussion of what would now be classed as pioneering scientific

anthropology Anthropology is the scientific study of humanity, concerned with human behavior, human biology, cultures, societies, and linguistics, in both the present and past, including past human species. Social anthropology studies patterns of behavi ...

from the changing perspectives of the period, though also with wider geographical, archaeological and linguistic interests. In 1871 the ESL became part of what now is the

Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland The Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland (RAI) is a long-established anthropological organisation, and Learned Society, with a global membership. Its remit includes all the component fields of anthropology, such as biolo ...

, merging back with the breakaway rival group the

Anthropological Society of London The Anthropological Society of London (ASL) was a short-lived organisation of the 1860s whose founders aimed to furnish scientific evidence for white supremacy which they construed in terms of polygenism. It was founded in 1863 by Richard Francis ...

Background

At the time of the Society's foundation, "

" was a neologism. The

Société Ethnologique de Paris The Société Ethnologique de Paris was a French learned society set up by William Frédéric Edwards in 1839.Ethnological Society of New York was founded in 1842. An earlier

existed from 1837 to 1842; Luke Burke who was a member published an ''Ethnological Journal'' in 1848. The Paris society was set up by William Frederic Edwards, with a definite research programme in mind. Edwards had been lecturing for a decade on the deficiency of considering the races as purely linguistic groups. The ''

Oxford English Dictionary The ''Oxford English Dictionary'' (''OED'') is the first and foundational historical dictionary of the English language, published by Oxford University Press (OUP). It traces the historical development of the English language, providing a com ...

'' records the term "ethnology" used in English by

James Cowles Prichard James Cowles Prichard, FRS (11 February 1786 – 23 December 1848) was a British physician and ethnologist with broad interests in physical anthropology and psychiatry. His influential ''Researches into the Physical History of Mankind'' touched ...

in 1842, in his ''Natural History of Man'', for the "history of nations". The approach to ethnology current at the time of the Society's founding relied on climate and social factors to explain human diversity; the debate was still framed by

Noah's Flood The Genesis flood narrative (chapters 6–9 of the Book of Genesis) is the Hebrew version of the universal flood myth. It tells of God's decision to return the universe to its pre- creation state of watery chaos and remake it through the micro ...

, and the corresponding

monogenism Monogenism or sometimes monogenesis is the theory of human origins which posits a common descent for all human races. The negation of monogenism is polygenism. This issue was hotly debated in the Western world in the nineteenth century, as the ...

of human origins. Prichard was a major figure in looking at

human variability Human variability, or human variation, is the range of possible values for any characteristic, physical or mental, of human beings. Frequently debated areas of variability include cognitive ability, personality, physical appearance (body shape ...

from a diachronic angle, and argued for ethnology as such a study, aimed at resolving the question of human origins. The early days of ethnology saw it in the position of a

fringe science Fringe science refers to ideas whose attributes include being highly speculative or relying on premises already refuted. Fringe science theories are often advanced by persons who have no traditional academic science background, or by researchers ...

. Prichard commented in 1848 that the

British Association for the Advancement of Science The British Science Association (BSA) is a charity and learned society founded in 1831 to aid in the promotion and development of science. Until 2009 it was known as the British Association for the Advancement of Science (BA). The current Chie ...

(BAAS) still classed ethnology as a subdivision of natural history, as applied to

man A man is an adult male human. Prior to adulthood, a male human is referred to as a boy (a male child or adolescent). Like most other male mammals, a man's genome usually inherits an X chromosome from the mother and a Y chromos ...

. It stayed in Section D for a period, but in 1851 it was classed in a new Section E for Geology and Geography, after lobbying by supporters including

Roderick Murchison Sir Roderick Impey Murchison, 1st Baronet, (19 February 1792 – 22 October 1871) was a Scotland, Scottish geologist who served as director-general of the British Geological Survey from 1855 until his death in 1871. He is noted for investigat ...

. The overlap of interests between the ESL and the

Royal Geographical Society The Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers), often shortened to RGS, is a learned society and professional body for geography based in the United Kingdom. Founded in 1830 for the advancement of geographical scien ...

(RGS) was reflected by common membership. Around 1860 the

discovery of human antiquity The discovery of human antiquity was a major achievement of science in the middle of the 19th century, and the foundation of scientific paleoanthropology. The antiquity of man, human antiquity, or in simpler language the age of the human race, are ...

and the publication of the ''

Origin of Species ''On the Origin of Species'' (or, more completely, ''On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life''),The book's full original title was ''On the Origin of Species by Me ...

'' caused a fundamental change of perspective, with the older historical approach looking hopeless given the emergence of

prehistory Prehistory, also known as pre-literary history, is the period of human history between the use of the first stone tools by hominins 3.3 million years ago and the beginning of recorded history with the invention of writing systems. The use of ...

, but the biological issue gaining in interest.

Tensions in the Aborigines' Protection Society

The Aborigines' Protection Society (APS) was set up as a result of parliamentary committee activity, and was largely the initiative of

Thomas Fowell Buxton Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton, 1st Baronet (1 April 1786Olwyn Mary Blouet, "Buxton, Sir Thomas Fowell, first baronet (1786–1845)", ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'', Oxford University Press, 2004; online ed., May 201accessed 25 April 20 ...

. It produced reports, but in the wake of the

Niger expedition of 1841 The Niger expedition of 1841 was mounted by British missionary and activist groups in 1841-1842, using three British iron steam vessels to travel to Lokoja, at the confluence of the Niger River and Benue River, in what is now Nigeria. The British ...

some of its supporters believed a case made on science was being sidelined in the activities of the APS. The APS was founded by

Quakers Quakers are people who belong to a historically Protestant Christian set of denominations known formally as the Religious Society of Friends. Members of these movements ("theFriends") are generally united by a belief in each human's abil ...

in order to promote a specific social and political agenda. The Ethnological Society, though primarily a scientific organization, retained some of its predecessor's liberal outlook and activist bent.

Foundation

An ethnological questionnaire was produced by the BAAS in 1841, arising from a committee led by

Thomas Hodgkin Thomas Hodgkin RMS (17 August 1798 – 5 April 1866) was a British physician, considered one of the most prominent pathologists of his time and a pioneer in preventive medicine. He is now best known for the first account of Hodgkin's disease, ...

of the APS, and drawing on prior work in Paris by W. F. Edwards. A prospectus for the Ethnological Society was issued in July 1842 by Richard King; King had been a student under Hodgkin at

Guy's Hospital Guy's Hospital is an NHS hospital in the borough of Southwark in central London. It is part of Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust and one of the institutions that comprise the King's Health Partners, an academic health science centre. ...

. The Society first met in February 1843 at Hodgkin's house; or on 31 January, when

Ernst Dieffenbach Johann Karl Ernst Dieffenbach (27 January 1811 – 1 October 1855), also known as Ernest Dieffenbach, was a German physician, geologist and naturalist, the first trained scientist to live and work in New Zealand, where he travelled widely under t ...

read a paper ''On the Study of Ethnology''. Among the other founders were

John Beddoe John Beddoe FRS FRAI (21 September 1826 – 19 July 1911) was one of the most prominent English ethnologists in Victorian Britain. Life Beddoe was born in Bewdley, Worcestershire, and educated at University College, London (BA (London)) and ...

and

John Brown John Brown most often refers to: *John Brown (abolitionist) (1800–1859), American who led an anti-slavery raid in Harpers Ferry, Virginia in 1859 John Brown or Johnny Brown may also refer to: Academia * John Brown (educator) (1763–1842), Ir ...

. Apart from Hodgkin, King and Dieffenbach, the other significant common member with the APS was William Aldam, another Quaker. The Society had Corresponding Members, who counted as Fellows; they later included

Hermann Welcker Hermann Welcker (8 April 1822 – 12 September 1897) was a German anatomist and anthropologist who was born in Giessen. He was a nephew to philologist Friedrich Gottlieb Welcker (1784–1868). In 1851 he earned his doctorate from the University ...

. In the early days the Society had rooms at 27 Sackville Street, which were rented through King to the Westminster Medical Society.

1840s

John Briggs became a Fellow of the ESL in 1845, and

Brian Houghton Hodgson Brian Houghton Hodgson (1 February 1800 or more likely 1801 – 23 May 1894) was a pioneer naturalist and ethnologist working in India and Nepal where he was a British Resident. He described numerous species of birds and mammals from the Himala ...

, also representing the ethnology of India, was at some point made an Honorary Fellow.

William Augustus Miles William Augustus Miles (c. 1753–1817) was an English political writer. He was also a British agent in the years around the French Revolution. He is not to be confused with William Augustus Miles (1798–1851), penitentiary reformer. Early life ...

was a member and published a paper on the aboriginal Australian culture. After Prichard's death in 1848, the intellectual leader in the Society became

Robert Gordon Latham Robert Gordon Latham FRS (24 March 1812 – 9 March 1888) was an English ethnologist and philologist. Early life The eldest son of Thomas Latham, vicar of Billingborough, Lincolnshire, he was born there on 24 March 1812. He entered Eton College ...

. Links to the Aborigines' Protection Society were retained through the common membership of Hodgkin and

Henry Christy Henry Christy (26 July 1810 – 4 May 1865) was an English banker and collector, who left his substantial collections to the British Museum. Early life Christy was born at Kingston upon Thames, the second son of William Miller Christy of Woodbin ...

, though the break was not completely amicable.

George W. Stocking, Jr. George W. Stocking Jr. (December 28, 1928July 13, 2013) was a German-born American scholar noted for his scholarship on the history of anthropology. Early life and education Stocking was born in Berlin, Germany in 1928. His father, the economist ...

, ''What's in a Name: The Origins of the Royal Anthropological Institute (1837–71)'', at pp. 372–3, Man, New Series volume 6 issue 3, (Sep. 1971), 369–390
PDF
The Ethnological Society in its early years lacked good contacts with officialdom, certainly compared to the RGS and its good working relationship with the

Colonial Office The Colonial Office was a government department of the Kingdom of Great Britain and later of the United Kingdom, first created to deal with the colonial affairs of British North America but required also to oversee the increasing number of col ...

. Governor

George Grey Sir George Grey, KCB (14 April 1812 – 19 September 1898) was a British soldier, explorer, colonial administrator and writer. He served in a succession of governing positions: Governor of South Australia, twice Governor of New Zealand, Go ...

was helpful to the Society, but he was an exception: it took until the end of the decade for the Society to begin to appreciate its marginal position with respect to the flow of information from the British colonies. Grey was an active member of the ESL while abroad as a colonial administrator, and his network included William Ellis, another member.

1850s

In 1850 the Society was based at 17

Savile Row Savile Row (pronounced ) is a street in Mayfair, central London. Known principally for its traditional bespoke tailoring for men, the street has had a varied history that has included accommodating the headquarters of the Royal Geographical ...

. It saw a period of decline in the middle of the decade. Among active members on the Council was

William Devonshire Saull William Devonshire Saull (21 April 1783 – 26 April 1855) was an English businessman, known now for his activities as geologist, antiquary and museum-keeper, philanthropist and supporter of radical causes. Life Saull was born at Byfield, Northam ...

, who died in 1855.

George Bellas Greenough George Bellas Greenough FRS FGS (18 January 1778 – 2 April 1855) was a pioneering English geologist. He is best known as a synthesizer of geology rather than as an original researcher. Trained as a lawyer, he was a talented speaker and his ...

was a vice-president. Richard Cull's 1852 report mentioned

Singapore Singapore (), officially the Republic of Singapore, is a sovereign island country and city-state in maritime Southeast Asia. It lies about one degree of latitude () north of the equator, off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, borde ...

connections, in particular

James Richardson Logan James Richardson Logan (born 10 April 1819 in Berwickshire, Scotland, died 20 October 1869 in Penang, Straits Settlements) was a lawyer who popularised the name Indonesia after it was coined by the English ethnologist George Windsor Earl. He was ...

Thomas Richard Heywood Thomson Thomas Richard Heywood Thomson (1813–1876) was an English explorer and naturalist. He took part in the Niger expedition of 1841. He originally described the Allen's gallinule. Works *Captain William Allen William Allen may refer to: Poli ...

delivered a paper in 1854 to the Society on

interfertility In biology, a hybrid is the offspring resulting from combining the qualities of two organisms of different breeds, varieties, species or genera through sexual reproduction. Hybrids are not always intermediates between their parents (such as in ...

, casting doubt on comments of Paweł Edmund Strzelecki about

female infertility Female infertility refers to infertility in women. It affects an estimated 48 million women, with the highest prevalence of infertility affecting women in South Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, North Africa/Middle East, and Central/Eastern Europe and Cen ...

among

Aboriginal Australians Aboriginal Australians are the various Indigenous peoples of the Australian mainland and many of its islands, such as Tasmania, Fraser Island, Hinchinbrook Island, the Tiwi Islands, and Groote Eylandt, but excluding the Torres Strait Islands ...

after they had given birth to a child with a

white White is the lightest color and is achromatic (having no hue). It is the color of objects such as snow, chalk, and milk, and is the opposite of black. White objects fully reflect and scatter all the visible wavelengths of light. White on ...

father. The communication was well received, but as a contribution to the ongoing debate on race, was far from settling the significant underlying issue.

James Hunt James Simon Wallis Hunt (29 August 1947 – 15 June 1993) ''Autocourse Grand Prix Archive'', 14 October 2007. Retrieved 4 November 2007. was a British racing driver who won the Formula One World Championship in . After retiring from racing in ...

joined the ESL in 1854, and became a divisive figure because of his attacks on humanitarian attitudes of missionaries and

abolitionists Abolitionism, or the abolitionist movement, is the movement to end slavery. In Western Europe and the Americas, abolitionism was a historic movement that sought to end the Atlantic slave trade and liberate the enslaved people. The Britis ...

. He served as secretary from 1859 to 1862. He found an ally in

John Crawfurd John Crawfurd (13 August 1783 – 11 May 1868) was a Scottish physician, colonial administrator, diplomat, and author who served as the second and last Resident of Singapore. Early life He was born on Islay, in Argyll, Scotland, the son of S ...

, who had retired from service as colonial diplomat and administrator for the

East India Company The East India Company (EIC) was an English, and later British, joint-stock company founded in 1600 and dissolved in 1874. It was formed to trade in the Indian Ocean region, initially with the East Indies (the Indian subcontinent and Southea ...

. Crawfurd came to ethnology through its section in the BAAS. His published views on race were discordant with the Quaker and APS tradition in the ESL. Hunt and Crawfurd in 1858 tried to dislodge the President

Sir James Clark Sir James Clark, 1st Baronet, KCB (14 December 1788 – 29 June 1870) was a Scottish physician who was Physician-in-Ordinary to Queen Victoria between 1837 and 1860, and was previously physician to poet John Keats in Rome. Early life and career ...

at an ESL meeting, unsuccessfully, while Hodgkin was out of the country.

1860s

The 1860s saw a revived interest in ethnology, triggered by recent work, such as that involving flint implements and the

antiquity of man The discovery of human antiquity was a major achievement of science in the middle of the 19th century, and the foundation of scientific paleoanthropology. The antiquity of man, human antiquity, or in simpler language the age of the human race, are ...

. The Ethnological Society became a more of meeting-place for

archaeologist Archaeology or archeology is the scientific study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, sites, and cultural landscap ...

s, as its interests kept pace with new work; and during this decade the Society became a very different institution. The society's original members had mainly been military officers, civil servants, and members of the clergy, but by the early 1860s younger scientists had supplanted them. The background was of continuing encounters worldwide with many peoples; John Thomson the photographer who was recording them became a member in 1866.

Thomas Henry Huxley Thomas Henry Huxley (4 May 1825 – 29 June 1895) was an English biologist and anthropologist specialising in comparative anatomy. He has become known as "Darwin's Bulldog" for his advocacy of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. The storie ...

, Augustus Lane Fox,

Edward Tylor Sir Edward Burnett Tylor (2 October 18322 January 1917) was an English anthropologist, and professor of anthropology. Tylor's ideas typify 19th-century cultural evolutionism. In his works ''Primitive Culture'' (1871) and ''Anthropology'' (1 ...

, John Lubbock, and

Augustus Wollaston Franks Sir Augustus Wollaston Franks (20 March 182621 May 1897) was a British antiquarian and museum administrator. Franks was described by Marjorie Caygill, historian of the British Museum, as "arguably the most important collector in the history of ...

all figured prominently in the society's affairs after 1860. The ESL's meetings and journal served as a forum for sharing new ideas, and as a clearing-house for ethnological data. In 1868 the Society set up a Classification Committee to try to get on top of the issues caused by haphazard reporting, and lack of systematic fieldwork. This initiative was a proposal of Lane Fox.

Split and merger

In the years after the publication of the ''Origin of Species'' in 1859, the "Ethnologicals" generally supported

Charles Darwin Charles Robert Darwin ( ; 12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) was an English naturalist, geologist, and biologist, widely known for his contributions to evolutionary biology. His proposition that all species of life have descended fr ...

against his critics, and rejected the more extreme forms of

scientific racism Scientific racism, sometimes termed biological racism, is the pseudoscience, pseudoscientific belief that empirical evidence exists to support or justify racism (racial discrimination), racial inferiority, or racial superiority.. "Few tragedies ...

. The movement towards Darwinism was not one way, however, as evidenced by the Honorary Fellowship given to

Robert Knox Robert Knox (4 September 1791 – 20 December 1862) was a Scottish anatomist and ethnologist best known for his involvement in the Burke and Hare murders. Born in Edinburgh, Scotland, Knox eventually partnered with anatomist and former teache ...

in 1860. The

(ASL) was founded in 1863 as an institutional home for those who disagreed with the Ethnological Society's politics (in terms of party loyalties, Stocking makes the political complexion of the ESL 75% Liberal to 25% Conservative, with the proportions reversed in the ASL). On the topic of

race Race, RACE or "The Race" may refer to: * Race (biology), an informal taxonomic classification within a species, generally within a sub-species * Race (human categorization), classification of humans into groups based on physical traits, and/or s ...

, the Ethnological Society retained views descending from

Johann Friedrich Blumenbach Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (11 May 1752 – 22 January 1840) was a German physician, naturalist, physiologist, and anthropologist. He is considered to be a main founder of zoology and anthropology as comparative, scientific disciplines. He wa ...

, who had a five-race theory but was a monogenist, and from Prichard. The post-Darwin concept of human speciation was unacceptable to those forming the Anthropological Society. The two societies co-existed warily for several years. The

X Club The X Club was a dining club of nine men who supported the theories of natural selection and academic liberalism in late 19th-century England. Thomas Henry Huxley was the initiator; he called the first meeting for 3 November 1864. The club met ...

, with members in common, supported the Ethnological Society's side of the debate. Both societies took an interest in

sexual morality Sexual ethics (also known as sex ethics or sexual morality) is a branch of philosophy that considers the ethics or morality or otherwise in sexual behavior. Sexual ethics seeks to understand, evaluate and critique interpersonal relationships and ...

as a topic, but the attitude of

social evolutionism Sociocultural evolution, sociocultural evolutionism or social evolution are theories of sociobiology and cultural evolution that describe how Society, societies and culture change over time. Whereas sociocultural development traces processes th ...

was very largely restricted to the Ethnological Society, where

John Ferguson McLennan John Ferguson McLennan FRSE LLD (14 October 1827 – 16 June 1881), was a Scottish advocate, social anthropologist and ethnologist. Life He was born in Inverness, the son of John McLennan, an insurance agent, and his wife, Jessie Ross. He was ...

was a member, with the exception of Charles Staniland Wake who made little impact at the time. Huxley made efforts to merge the societies in 1866, but was blocked by Crawfurd; the attempt was renewed in 1868 after Crawfurd's death. The Ethnological Society and Anthropological Society merged in 1871 into the Anthropological Institute. A small group of past supporters of Hunt broke away in 1873, forming a London Anthropological Society that lasted two years.

Publications

Initially the Ethnological Society did not aim to publish its own

learned journal An academic journal or scholarly journal is a periodical publication in which scholarship relating to a particular academic discipline is published. Academic journals serve as permanent and transparent forums for the presentation, scrutiny, and d ...

. Instead it adopted a suggestion of

Robert Jameson Robert Jameson Robert Jameson FRS FRSE (11 July 1774 – 19 April 1854) was a Scottish naturalist and mineralogist. As Regius Professor of Natural History at the University of Edinburgh for fifty years, developing his predecessor John ...

, who edited the ''

Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal The ''Edinburgh Philosophical Journal'' was founded by its editors Robert Jameson and David Brewster in 1819 as a scientific journal to publish articles on the latest science of the day. In 1826 the two editors fell out, and Jameson continued publ ...

'', to have its transactions published there.RAI page: ''Ethnological Society of London. Publications''
The early flow of published papers was in fact sparse.Stocking, p. 245. Volume 46 from 1848 contained papers by

George Ruxton George Frederick Ruxton (24 July 1821 – 29 August 1848) was a British explorer and travel writer. He was a lieutenant in the British Army, received a medal for gallantry from Queen Isabella II of Spain, was a hunter and explorer and published p ...

and

James Henry Skene James Henry Skene (3 May 1812 – 3 October 1886) was an author, traveller and British Consul at Aleppo from March 1855 to 1880. He was born at Inverie, Scotland, the third son of James Skene of Rubislaw, near Aberdeen. His brothers included the w ...

contributed via the Ethnological Society. The ''Journal of the Ethnological Society of London'' was published in the years 1848 to 1856, a period in which four volumes appeared, and the Society's scientific activities were less marginal. It was edited by Thomas Wright. It then was published once more, under the title ''Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London'', from 1861 to 1869; it was renamed and published, from 1869 to 1870, again as ''Journal of the Ethnological Society of London'', and was edited by

George Busk George Busk FRS FRAI (12 August 1807 – 10 August 1886) was a British naval surgeon, zoologist and palaeontologist. Early life, family and education Busk was born in St. Petersburg, Russia. He was the son of the merchant Robert Busk and his ...

Presidents

*1843

Charles Malcolm Sir Charles Malcolm (1782–1851) was a Scottish Royal Navy officer, who reached the rank of vice-admiral. Naval life He was the tenth son of George Malcolm of Burnfoot, youngest brother of Sir Pulteney Malcolm and Sir John Malcolm, and was ...

*1848

*1850 Charles Malcolm.''Regulations of the Ethnological Society of London'' (1850); . *1853–54

Sir Benjamin Collins Brodie, 1st Baronet Sir Benjamin Collins Brodie, 1st Baronet, (9 June 178321 October 1862) was an English physiologist and surgeon who pioneered research into bone and joint disease. Biography Brodie was born in Winterslow, Wiltshire. He received his early ed ...

Obituary of Conolly in the ''Transactions'' of 1867
archive.org
*1855–56

John Conolly John Conolly (27 May 1794 – 5 March 1866) was an English psychiatrist. He published the volume ''Indications of Insanity'' in 1830. In 1839, he was appointed resident physician to the Middlesex County Asylum where he introduced the princip ...

*1861–?

*1863–65 John Lubbock *1865–68 John Crawfurd *1868–69

Thomas Huxley Thomas Henry Huxley (4 May 1825 – 29 June 1895) was an English biologist and anthropologist specialising in comparative anatomy. He has become known as "Darwin's Bulldog" for his advocacy of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. The storie ...

*Before merger:

BMA obituary, p. 346
PDF

References

*Efram Sera-Shriar, ''The Making of British Anthropology, 1813–1871'', London: Pickering and Chatto, 2013, pp. 53–79. *Brent Henze, ''Scientific Definition in Rhetorical Formations: Race as "Permanent Variety" in James Cowles Prichard's Ethnology'', Rhetoric Review Vol. 23, No. 4 (2004), pp. 311–331. Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. *Ronald Rainger, ''Philanthropy and Science in the 1830s: The British and Foreign Aborigines' Protection Society'', Man, New Series, Vol. 15, No. 4 (Dec., 1980), pp. 702–717. Published by: Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. *Damon Ieremia Salesa (2011), ''Racial Crossings: Race, intermarriage, and the Victorian British Empire''
Google Books
*

(1987), ''Victorian Anthropology''

Notes

External links

WorldCat page
{{authority control 1843 establishments in England Defunct learned societies of the United Kingdom Scientific societies based in the United Kingdom Anthropology organizations Organizations established in 1843